D (2013) Assessing the Quality of Tests Revision of the Efpa Review Model Psicothema 25

Abstruse

Using social networks (SNs) inappropriately can lead to psychological bug. The objective of this study was to develop a new measuring musical instrument of problematic use of SNs. The sample comprised 1003 participants over eighteen years old (M = 42.33; SD = 14.32). Exploratory factor analysis was performed with a randomly selected thirty% of the sample, and confirmatory factor analysis with the remaining seventy%. The reliability of the instrument was estimated, and bear witness of validity in relation to the variables—anxiety, low and satisfaction with life—was obtained. The new scale demonstrated a two-dimensional structure (GFI =0.99; RMSEA= 0.06), with i factor of negative social comparison (α = 0.94) and another of addictive consequences (α = 0.91). Clear evidence of validity related to other variables was found. The new calibration demonstrated proficient psychometric properties. The advantage of this questionnaire is that it assesses non just excessive use but too social comparison through SNs.

Fourth dimension spent in social networks (SNs) has been linked to various psychological problems such equally depression, anxiety and psychological well-being (Frost & Rickwood, 2017; Hussain & Griffiths, 2021). However, in order to analyze this human relationship, it is necessary to make up one's mind which behaviours in SNs are truly problematic, as certain activities in SNs may not be problematic but positive, such as using SNs as a course of social support (Gilmour et al., 2020).

Various terms take been used to refer to maladaptive SNs use, such as problematic social media use (Bányai et al., 2017), social media disorder (Van Den Eijnden et al., 2016) and Facebook addiction (Andreassen et al., 2012). Despite this wide range of terminology, there are two main approaches for evaluating the problematic use of SNs, each one related to the two existing models for problematic internet utilise (Matute, 2016). One arroyo conceives problematic SNs employ as a problem of habit, and thus focuses on symptoms usually present in behavioural habit (Allahverdi, 2021; Andreassen et al., 2012; Blanca & Bendayan, 2018; Van Den Eijnden et al., 2016). The other approach applies Caplan's (2010) model of problematic net apply to SNs.

Studies based on Caplan's (2010) model not only address typical symptoms of behavioural habit, such as mood-related and negative consequences, but also include other traits which would denote problematic employ (Marino et al., 2016). One such trait is particularly important in problematic SNs employ and could exist assessed aslope addictive traits and is named negative social comparing (Verduyn et al., 2020). Negative social comparison on SNs, defined every bit comparisons that make a person feel inferior to others on SNs, has been related to negative mental health consequences (Appel et al., 2015). To the all-time of our knowledge, no instruments take been developed so far that evaluate this specific behaviour on SNs.

Social comparison was defined by Festinger (1954) as the trend to use other people every bit sources of data to examine one'southward own abilities and ways of behaving, thinking, or feeling. These comparisons, which are innate in humans, are intensified on SNs due to the almost limitless content available (Perloff, 2014). This comparison tin have positive or negative consequences, depending on which one compares oneself with. There are two possibilities: either the person compares themselves with someone they consider inferior (downward comparison) and their self-esteem improves or they compare themselves with someone considered superior (upward comparison), which is a common situation on SNs and is known to have negative furnishings on a person'due south mental wellness (De Lenne et al., 2018; De Vries et al., 2018; Luong et al., 2019; Verduyn et al., 2020).

The assessment of social comparison on SNs has generally depended on unvalidated questionnaires. Ii types of questionnaires have been used without the corresponding psychometric analysis. On the one hand, in that location are unvalidated questionnaires that accept been synthetic for a specific report, such as the questionnaire past Lee (2014), in which the writer makes no mention of factorial structure or reliability. However, information technology has continued to be used in subsequent studies (De Vries & Kühne, 2015; Schmuck et al., 2019). Another case of an "advertising hoc" questionnaire about SNs comparing is in Cramer et al. (2016), in which only reliability was addressed. On the other hand, researchers have modified questionnaires aimed at evaluating social comparison in other contexts to assess social comparison on SNs. For example, a common practice to adapt them to the SNs context is to change the content of the items, mainly, by adding the word "Facebook". For instance, Liu et al. (2017) adapted an instrument aimed at assessing comparison in twenty-four hour period-to-solar day life, the Iowa Netherlands Comparison Measure (Gibbons & Buunk, 1999), to the context of SNs.

The most normally studied psychological problems related to problematic SNs use are anxiety, depression and psychological well-beingness, with gambling and cyberbullying as other less oft related issues (Feijóo et al., 2021). Problematic apply, understood every bit a purely addictive problem, has been associated with higher levels of depression and anxiety (Barbar et al., 2021; Keles et al., 2020; Malaeb et al., 2021; Seabrook et al., 2016 ; Youssef et al., 2021), stress (Hussain & Griffiths, 2018) and poorer psychological well-existence (Marino et al., 2018b). Problematic SN use, when considered a context for negative social comparison, has also been associated with greater levels of low (Yoon et al., 2019) and feet-depressive symptoms (Schmuck et al., 2019), every bit well as with lower levels of psychological well-beingness (Arias-de la Torre et al., 2020; Huang, 2017). Contempo meta-analyses have likewise studied problematic SNs utilize by combining both types of uses, addictive and comparative, which they have found to be both positively related to low (Vahedi & Zannella, 2021; Yoon et al., 2019).

In summary, at that place seems to be a human relationship between the development of psychological disorders and the problematic utilize of SNs. The strength of this relationship, yet, largely depends on how the use of SNs is defined, and therefore measured. To date, enquiry has addressed this human relationship by understanding the problematic use of SNs as a purely addictive problem. Our written report aims to bring a broader approach by developing a tool that also assesses social comparing on SNs, which is not only a cardinal characteristic of SNs but it is besides completely different to the social comparison that takes identify in other contexts. This questionnaire, meant to be used with any SNs, is the start i in the Spanish context. Therefore, our main objective in this study is the development and validation of a measuring instrument that will allow standardized, rigorous measurement of problematic SNs use. In order to do that, we will perform the appropriate psychometric analyses to provide evidence of item quality and relationship with other variables, along with reliability and dimensionality.

Method

Participants

The sample was initially composed of one,059 participants from the Castilian general population over 18 years sometime. The final sample was reduced to 1,003 post-obit the removal of 5.29% of the sample for having more than two incorrect answers in the attentional control scale (described in more item in the "Instruments" department). The participants were aged betwixt eighteen and 83 years old (K = 42.33; SD = 14.32), with 75.5% of them beingness women and almost two-thirds (64.81%) of the participants having academy-level qualifications. Table 1 shows the distribution of gender and level of education both in the sample and the Castilian full general population.

Tabular array ane. Distribution of gender and educational attainment in the sample and in the Spanish general population

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Instruments

Problematic Use of SNs (PUS) Questionnaire

In the evolution of the new instrument, problematic use of SNs (PUS), we followed the criteria established past the European Federation of Psychologists' Associations (EFPA) for examination evaluation (Evers et al., 2013) and the standards for Educational and Psychological Evaluation (AERA, APA, NCME, 2014), every bit well as the recommendations from the current literature on psychometry (Downing & Haladyna, 2006; Lane et al., 2015; Muñiz, 2018; Muñiz & Fonseca-Pedrero, 2019).

A review of the literature was undertaken to construct a set of items representative of the behaviours that comprise problematic utilize of SNs (54 items). All of the items were worded directly (Suárez-Álvarez et al., 2018; Acuity-Colet et al., 2020). Problematic SN use was defined in the same way as in Marino et al. (2018a), every bit the employ of SNs that produces negative consequences in people's psychological well-existence. From this definition, the items were adult in accordance to the two theoretical areas of problematic SN use: the addiction-related consequences of SNs use and negative social comparison. Addictive use would reflect the interference of SNs use in everyday life, while negative social comparison would reverberate the comparisons made on SNs which puts the individual in a state of affairs of inferiority. While these two facets were created to cover the theoretical aspects of maladaptive use of SNs, the internal structure of the test, however, was expected to reverberate unidimensionality. This is because both addictive use and negative comparisons on SNs would both be uses of SNs with negative consequences on people'southward lives. There are likewise meta-analyses that accept examined the problematic utilize of SNs every bit a combination of the 2 uses (Vahedi & Zannella, 2021; Yoon et al., 2019).

A detailed qualitative and quantitative analysis was carried out to decide the representativeness of the content (Sireci & Faulkner-Bond, 2014) with the participation of 21 doctors of psychology. The expert assessment had two parts: (a) rating the clarity of the item wording on a scale from ane to 10 and (b) rating how strongly each detail belonged to each hypothesized dimension of problematic use of SNs. The expert judges were besides able to comment on each item. From the data thus obtained, we applied the following three criteria to remove low-quality items: (a) inter-rater understanding beneath seventy% with respect to the measured dimension, (b) the lower limit of the 95% confidence interval of Aiken'southward V below 0.seven (Lease, 2003) and (c) unfavourable comments. Thus, we removed 34 items, with a final scale containing xx items. The scores in the concluding scale for Aiken's V were 0.88 [95% CI 0.82–0.93], indicating an splendid level of agreement most the clarity of the detail wording (Penfield and Giacobbi 2004). The final instrument consisted of twenty Likert-type particular with v response categories (i completely disagree, 5 completely hold).

Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS; Diener et al., 1985)

This instrument is a scale that measures life satisfaction and information technology has five items. Participants are asked how much they concord with each statement, responding using a v-betoken Likert-type calibration (from 1 = completely disagree to v = completely agree). Reliability estimated using the α coefficient for the Spanish adaptation was 0.88 (Vázquez et al., 2013). The α coefficient in the present written report was 0.82.

Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS; Zigmond & Snaith, 1983)

We used the Spanish adaptation from Terol et al. (2007). This is a questionnaire containing 14 items, with two subscales of seven items each, responses to which are given on a Likert-type calibration from 0/3. One subscale, HADS_A, assesses the level of anxiety, and the other, HADS_D, assesses the level of depression. Higher scores in each subscale indicate greater anxiety and depression, respectively. The internal consistency of the 2 scales in the Castilian version was 0.86 (Quintana et al., 2003). The α coefficient in the present study was 0.84 for HADS_A and 0.77 for HADS_D.

Attentional Control Scale

Nosotros included an attentional control scale in gild to discover participants who responded randomly to the different questionnaires. It was composed of 10 items that asked participants to cull a specific response (due east.g., in this question, mark completely agree).

Process

We used snowball sampling via SNs to obtain the sample. Participants had to be eighteen years sometime or older to participate. Data collection was done through an online questionnaire, anonymously and voluntarily, with informed consent being given earlier starting. Both the questionnaire items and the attentional control items were presented to the participants in random order. The participants received no advantage for their participation.

Data Analysis

We used the SPSS 24 statistics package (IBM Corp, 2016) to summate the descriptive statistics, differential item functioning (DIF), Pearson correlations and the canonical correlation. We used FACTOR 10.10.02 (Lorenzo-Seva & Ferrando, 2013) to perform the exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and to calculate reliability coefficients. Finally, nosotros used the Mplus8 program (Muthén & Muthén, 2017) to acquit out the confirmatory cistron analysis (CFA).

To examine the internal structure of the exam, nosotros randomly divided the sample into two subsamples. We carried out an EFA in the start subsample, made upward of thirty% of the total sample (305 subjects), and a CFA in the 2nd subsample (698 subjects). To check that the information was suitable for EFA, we used KMO and Bartlett's statistic. The analysis was done with a polychoric correlation matrix given the ordinal nature of the variables and the high number of items with kurtosis and skewness values greater than |one| (Ferrando Piera, 2021; Muthen & Kaplan, 1992). The method of estimation was robust unweighted least squares (RULS), post-obit the guidelines in the electric current literature (Lloret-Segura et al., 2014). We adamant the number of factors using the optimal implementation of parallel assay (PA) procedure (Calderón et al., 2019; Timmerman & Lorenzo-Seva, 2011).

Subsequently, in order to confirm the dimensionality indicated by the EFA, we performed a CFA with the remaining seventy% of the sample. The method of estimation used was unweighted to the lowest degree squares estimates with standard errors and a mean- and variance-adjusted chi-square test (ULSMV). The indices of fit were comparative fit alphabetize (CFI), Tucker-Lewis index (TLI), root mean square residue (RMSR) and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA). A proficient fit was observed if CFI >0.95, TLI >0.95, RMSR < 0.08 and RMSEA < 0.05 (Hu & Bentler, 1999).

Following both factor analyses, nosotros carried out an item analysis in accordance to the classical examination theory model. To assess the bigotry indices of the items, the corrected detail-exam correlations were calculated, with values college than 0.two considered acceptable (Muñiz et al., 2005; Muñiz & Fonseca-Pedrero, 2019). Nosotros also examined whether the items had an bear upon as a function of the variable sex activity. In the items that did prove an touch, we assessed DIF via the logistic regression procedure (Gómez-Benito et al., 2013).

Nosotros used Cronbach's (1951) α coefficient and Mcdonald's (1999) ω coefficient to examine reliability.

We examined evidence of validity in relation to other variables by calculating the Pearson correlation between the new instrument and the following variables: (a) the HADS anxiety and depression scales, and (b) the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS). To discover the overall relationship between problematic SNs use and psychological distress, a approved correlation was carried out betwixt the ii dimensions found in the PUS and mood-related variables (anxiety, low and life satisfaction). To avoid over-representation of loftier educational level women, all correlational analyses accept been done weighting the sample to resemble to the population structure.

Internal evidence of convergent validity betwixt the two subscales of the PUS instrument was assessed using the average variance extracted (AVE). This was done using the method described in Fornell and Larcker (1981), with values above 0.l considered satisfactory (Pilus et al., 2009). Evidence of discriminant validity between the 2 scales in the instrument was determined past comparison whether the AVE values for each scale were higher than the square of the correlation between them (Fornell-Larcker benchmark).

In guild to improve the interpretation of the results of the questionnaire, nosotros constructed norm-referenced scores for each of the two subscales. To determine whether it was necessary to differentiate between the sexes, an contained samples weighted t examination was performed.

Results

We showtime performed an EFA with a subsample of 305 subjects. Prior to this analysis, we confirmed the suitability of the data for EFA via the KMO test (KMO = 0.87) and Bartlett's test (p ≤ 0.001). An initial EFA was done to confirm whether the data fitted to an essentially unidimensional structure, which gave an unsatisfactory fit (Table two). Despite the value of GFI and TLI being greater than 0.95, indicating an adequate fit, neither RMSEA nor RMSR gave an adequate fit, and in improver, the PA suggested the extraction of two factors.

Table 2. Exploratory factor assay of the PUS questionnaire

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Nosotros subsequently performed a 2d EFA to decide the fit of the ii-dimensional construction, which produced an adequate fit with a GFI and TLI that was higher than the get-go EFA and an acceptable value of RMSEA and RMSR (run into Table 2). All the same, we eliminated two items from the test (items v and 10) as they loaded low and equally on both factors. They were also removed for theoretical reasons as they assessed similar aspects as other items with higher factor loadings. The test was reduced to 18 items, which were analysed by a third EFA, giving adequate fit supported by the GFI and TLI being greater than 0.95, the explained variance and the RMSEA giving a value between 0.05 and 0.08 equally well as the RMSR existence lower than 0.08. The fit indices of all three EFAs are shown in Tabular array 2.

The correlation betwixt factors was 0.59. These results point that the exam can exist understood equally a bidimensional scale. Based on the distribution of the items in each of the factors, the outset cistron could be chosen "negative social comparison" and the second "addictive consequences".

The bidimensional model was tested via a CFA with 698 subjects and 18 items. Table three shows the values for CFI and RMSEA indicating a good fit. Information technology also shows the factor loadings, which were very loftier in both factors. In improver, the table includes all the discrimination indices (DI), which were all higher than 0.56 in the beginning cistron and higher than 0.55 in the 2nd factor. Items i, 12 and 17 showed touch on but none of them exhibited gender DIF.

Table 3. Confirmatory gene analysis and discrimination alphabetize for the items in the PUS questionnaire

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The first PUS factor, called "negative social comparison", had an alpha coefficient of 0.94 and an omega coefficient of 0.94. The second PUS gene, called "addictive consequences", had an alpha coefficient of 0.91 and an omega coefficient of 0.91.

Convergent validity between scales was acceptable for both the negative social comparison factor (AVE = 0.sixty) and the addictive consequences cistron (AVE = 0.56), with AVE values higher up 0.five. For discriminant validity, we compared the square of the correlation between the 2 factors (r ⁱⁱ _xy = 0.26) with the value of AVE for each factor. As the value of AVE for both factors was greater than the square of the correlation, adequate testify of discriminant validity between scales was found.

With regard to the relationships with other variables, Table 4 shows the Pearson correlations between problematic use of SNs, as measured using the new PUS instrument, and the variables low, anxiety and satisfaction. The correlation between the HADS subscales (feet and depression) and the PUS subscales (negative comparing and addictive consequences) was statistically significant and positive. In add-on, the SWLS (satisfaction) correlated negatively with both PUS subscales.

Table four. Pearson correlations between the negative social comparison subscale, addictive consequences subscale, the HADS questionnaire, and the SWLS scale

Full size tabular array

Similarly, the approved correlation between the two PUS subscales and the three psychological trait scales (anxiety, low and satisfaction) was 0.52, and the redundancy coefficient was 0.16 (16% mutual variance).

Finally, we norm-referenced the scores based on percentiles differentiating between the sexes, equally the contained sample weighted t test indicated statistically significant differences. Women had significantly higher scores than men in both the negative social comparing subscale (p = 0.003) and the addictive consequences subscale (p = 0.016). The norm-referenced scores for negative social comparison and addictive consequences for both men and women are shown in Table 5 and 6, respectively.

Table 5. Norm-referenced scores for the negative social comparing subscale divided past sex

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Table 6. Norm-referenced scores for the addictive consequences subscale divided by sex

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Discussion and Conclusions

The objective of our study was to develop and validate the problematic utilise of SNs (PUS) scale. The PUS is novel because (i) information technology is the just self-report, equally far nosotros know, that not only studies the potential addiction-related consequences of SNs use just too focuses on how SNs are used in a comparative way; and (ii) it assesses the problematic use of SNs without focusing on any specific social network, and thus, it can exist generalized to different SNs.

In terms of internal structure, the new PUS scale demonstrated a bidimensional structure with ii strongly correlated dimensions. Therefore, on the 1 hand, it is possible to obtain a score for each of the subscales for more specific data about problematic use of SNs. On the other hand, considering the high correlation of the subscales, a total problematic use score could too be obtained. One of the subscales, addictive consequences, can be considered similar to other scales that evaluate the addictive use of SNs in order to compare its structure. Most of the scales that appraise this addictive utilise of SNs are unidimensional, such as the Social Media Disorder Scale (Van Den Eijnden et al., 2016), the Facebook Intrusion Questionnaire (FIQ) from Elphinston and Noller (2011) and the Bergen Facebook Addiction Scale (Andreassen et al., 2012) which focuses on Facebook, every bit well every bit its adaptation for SNs in general, the Bergen Social Media Habit scale (Andreassen et al., 2016). However, there are other scales that evaluate this kind of SNs use with multidimensional factor structures, such as the TDI-RS from Chóliz et al. (2016).

The second factor (i.e. negative social comparison) is more than difficult to compare, equally at that place are no existing questionnaires that appraise the same concept. This factor refers to the upward social comparison that could take place in the apply of SNs and that may be detrimental to psychological well-beingness (Verduyn et al., 2020). Pre-existing questionnaires that take assessed social comparing on SNs are of ii types: (i) the ones developed exclusively for a specific study with no intention of existence validated and (ii) the ones adapted from questionnaires addressing social comparison in general which have been reformulated a fit a SNs surroundings. This latter grouping includes the questionnaire created in the 2017 written report by Liu et al. in which the authors adapted a questionnaire for assessing social comparing in a day-to-day non-virtual context so that it could be used to assess upward comparisons on SNs. In the written report, the authors performed a factorial analysis that showed a unidimensional structure, as did Hanna et al. (2017).

Our new PUS instrument demonstrated fantabulous reliability according to the European model of exam quality assessment (Muñiz, 2018), both in the negative social comparison (α = 0.94; ω = 0.94) and addictive consequences (α = 0.91; ω = 0.91) subscales. The latter demonstrated greater reliability than other questionnaires that measure the addictive use of SNs, such as the brusque version of the Social Media Disorder Scale (Van Den Eijnden et al., 2016), the Facebook Intrusion Questionnaire (Elphinston & Noller, 2011), the Bergen Facebook Addiction Scale (Andreassen et al., 2012) and the Bergen Social Media Addiction Calibration (Andreassen et al., 2016). In addition, none of the items in the PUS calibration exhibited DIF based on sex, and all items had loftier discriminatory ability. It is not possible to compare the reliability of the negative social comparison subscale with validated questionnaires that measure out negative comparative employ of SNs as we did non find any. Nonetheless, it exhibited notably college reliability than the "ad hoc" questionnaires used by other authors (Cramer et al., 2016; Schmuck et al., 2019; Tandoc et al., 2015).

In terms of bear witness of validity related to other variables, the two PUS subscales demonstrated stiff positive correlations with both anxiety and low and a negative correlation with life satisfaction. Furthermore, the canonical correlation also indicates the human relationship between these two subsets. This is consistent with previous studies that have found a relationship between the use of SNs for comparisons and feet and depression (Hussain & Griffiths, 2018) as well as with dissatisfaction with life (Verduyn et al., 2017). Besides, information technology is consistent with previous studies that accept institute a relationship betwixt the addictive use of SNs and anxiety and low (Barbar et al., 2021; Keles et al., 2020; Malaeb et al., n.d.; Seabrook et al., 2016; Youssef et al., 2021) and lower levels of psychological well-being (Arias-de la Torre et al., 2020; Huang, 2017).

It is worth highlighting the differences between the PUS subscales. The negative social comparison subscale correlated more strongly with depression, anxiety and dissatisfaction with life than the addictive consequences subscale. Consequently, this may indicate the importance of evaluating the social comparison carried out in SNs in the evaluation of the problematic utilize of SNs in improver to its addictive consequences. This importance of social comparison, even over and above that of addictive traits, has already been highlighted by other studies (Keles et al., 2020).

The present study comes with some limitations. Firstly, the sampling was non strictly random, which ways that any generalization will be express. In addition, the sample is mainly comprised of highly qualified women. In guild to address the latter, weighting to population has been calculated, simply it is notwithstanding a limitation to be taken into consideration. We did not obtain data from under 18 years old, which means that it might be useful to replicate this study with minors. Additionally, data was nerveless during the Covid-19 lockdown which may take increased problematic and non-problematic use of SNs (Brailovskaia & Margraf, 2021).

In conclusion, the present study has adult a new scale for the assessment of the problematic use of SNs. The musical instrument is composed of 18 items divided into two subscales: addictive consequences and negative social comparison. The musical instrument demonstrated excellent psychometric properties. This new tool will let a more consummate assessment of the inappropriate utilize of SNs by not merely assessing the consequences of such use but also the tendency to use of SNs to brand interpersonal comparisons. In addition, nosotros have created two normative percentile scales differentiating between sexes in each of the two subscales.

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Open Admission funding provided thanks to the CRUE-CSIC understanding with Springer Nature. This investigation has been supported past a predoctoral grant from the Principality of Asturias (BP19–032).

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1. University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain

   Covadonga González-Nuevo, Marcelino Cuesta, Álvaro Postigo & Álvaro Menéndez-Aller

2. University of Nebrija, Madrid, Spain

   José Muñiz

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Correspondence to Covadonga González-Nuevo.

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The study was non explicitly reviewed by an Ethics Committee, given that this is non required past our University of Oviedo, nor by the national guidelines established in the Code of Ethics of the Spanish Psychological Association. In that location are several reasons why an explicit approval past an Ethics Committee was non necessary: the participants evaluated were adults, the evaluation was voluntarily accepted, that is, an implicit informed consent is assumed, and the data is treated anonymously and confidentially. In improver, all the recommendations established in ISO-10667 Standard for the evaluation of people were strictly followed. The whole evaluation process and the use of the measuring instruments were carried out always following the Deontological Lawmaking of the Spanish Psychological Association (2010), besides every bit the International Exam Commission Guidelines for Test Use (2013).

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Informed consent was obtained from all patients for beingness included in the study.

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González-Nuevo, C., Cuesta, M., Postigo, Á. et al. Problematic Social Network Use: Structure and Assessment. Int J Ment Wellness Addiction (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-021-00711-y

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• Accustomed: 11 November 2021

• Published: 02 December 2021

• DOI : https://doi.org/ten.1007/s11469-021-00711-y

Keywords

• Social networks
• Problematic social media use
• Social comparison
• Addictive social media use

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